## Tags - Part of: [[Intelligence]] - Related: [[Artificial Intelligence]], [[Collective Intelligence]], [[General intelligence]], [[Artificial General Intelligence]], [[Theory of Everything in Intelligence]], [[Biological intelligence]] - Includes: - Additional: ## Main resources - <iframe src="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_intelligence" allow="fullscreen" allowfullscreen="" style="height:100%;width:100%; aspect-ratio: 16 / 5; "></iframe> ## Landscapes - [Beren Millidge: Learning in the brain beyond backprop - YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jN1mUSJ9uiE&t=818s&pp=ygUXYWxnb3JpdGhtcyBvZiB0aGUgYnJhaW4%3D) - [\[2212.13345\] The Forward-Forward Algorithm: Some Preliminary Investigations](https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.13345) - [[Predictive coding]]: [Predictive coding - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_coding) - [[Free energy principle]] - [Basic Mathematics of Predictive Coding — LessWrong](https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/bD4B2MF7nsGAfH9fj/basic-mathematics-of-predictive-coding) - [#59 JEFF HAWKINS - Thousand Brains Theory - YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6VQILbDqaI4&t=2773s&pp=ygUadGhvdXNhbmRzIGJyYWluIGh5cG90aGVzaXM%3D) - [Hebbian theory - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory) - [Frontiers | Deep Gated Hebbian Predictive Coding Accounts for Emergence of Complex Neural Response Properties Along the Visual Cortical Hierarchy](https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncom.2021.666131/full) ## Crossovers - [[Artificial Intelligence x Biological Intelligence x Collective Intelligence]] - [[Artificial Intelligence x Biological Intelligence]] #### Map of biological intelligence Perception & Sensory Processing - Vision - Edge detection, contour integration - Color perception (opponent process theory) - Depth perception (stereopsis, motion parallax) - Face recognition (fusiform face area) - Visual search, attentional spotlight - Audition - Auditory scene analysis, streaming - Pitch perception, melody & harmony - Speech segmentation, phoneme detection - Auditory localization (interaural time & level differences) - Touch & proprioception - Tactile acuity, texture perception - Pain & temperature sensation - Kinesthesia, muscle spindles & golgi tendon organs - Olfaction & gustation - Odorant receptor neurons, glomeruli - Taste receptor cells (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami) - Flavor perception (integration of taste & smell) - Multisensory integration - Bayesian inference, causal inference - Cross-modal attention, synesthesia Attention & Cognitive Control - Bottom-up attention - Feature integration theory, guided search - Exogenous orienting, attentional capture - Top-down attention - Biased competition, selective enhancement/suppression - Inhibition of return, visual marking - Endogenous orienting, sustained attention - Alerting, orienting, executive attention networks - Locus coeruleus norepinephrine system (alerting) - Superior colliculus, parietal cortex (orienting) - Prefrontal & anterior cingulate cortices (executive) - Attentional phenomena - Attentional blink, psychological refractory period - Change & inattentional blindness - Multiple object tracking, subitizing Learning & Memory - Declarative memory - Semantic memory (anterior & lateral temporal lobes) - Episodic memory (hippocampus, prefrontal cortex) - Autobiographical memory, future thinking - Schemas, gist memory - Non-declarative memory - Procedural memory (striatum, motor cortex) - Priming (perceptual, semantic, repetition) - Classical & operant conditioning (amygdala, cerebellum) - Habituation & sensitization - Working memory - Phonological loop (left temporoparietal) - Visuospatial sketchpad (right temporoparietal) - Episodic buffer (frontal) - Central executive (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) - Neural plasticity mechanisms - Hebbian learning, spike-timing dependent plasticity - Long-term potentiation & depression - Synaptic tagging & capture, metaplasticity - Adult neurogenesis (hippocampus, olfactory bulb) - Memory consolidation & retrieval - Standard model (fast hippocampal, slow neocortical learning) - Multiple trace theory - Pattern completion, memory reactivation - Context & state-dependent memory Motor Control & Sequence Learning - Voluntary movement - Motor cortex, descending pyramidal tracts - Premotor cortex, supplementary & pre-supplementary motor areas - Posterior parietal cortex, movement planning - Basal ganglia (direct & indirect pathways, hyperdirect pathway) - Cerebellum - Forward & inverse models, supervised learning - Timing & coordination of movement - Reflexes & central pattern generators - Stretch reflex, withdrawal reflex - Locomotion, swallowing, breathing rhythms - Motor learning & control - Adaptation (e.g. prism, force field, visuomotor rotation) - Efference copy, corollary discharge - After-effects, spontaneous recovery, savings - Sequence learning - Discrete & continuous sequence production - Chunking, associative chaining, hierarchical control - Statistical learning, artificial grammar learning - Serial reaction time tasks, 2x5 task Reward & Motivation - Dopamine system - Tonic & phasic dopamine signaling - Reward prediction error (temporal difference learning) - Incentive salience attribution ("wanting" vs. "liking") - Effort-based decision making, cost-benefit analysis - Reinforcement learning - Model-free (habits) vs. model-based (goal-directed) - Actor-critic architecture - Temporal difference learning, Q-learning - Exploration (curiosity, novelty-seeking) vs. exploitation - Approach & avoidance motivation - Behavioral activation & inhibition systems - Opponent process theory - Drive reduction, homeostatic regulation - Allostasis, anticipatory control - Reward pathways & neuromodulators - Mesolimbic & mesocortical dopamine pathways - Endogenous opioids, endocannabinoids - Orexin/hypocretin, melanin-concentrating hormone - Serotonin, norepinephrine Emotion & Social Cognition - Emotion recognition & expression - Basic emotions (fear, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise) - Dimensional theories (valence, arousal, dominance) - Facial action coding system - Emotional brain circuits - Amygdala (threat detection, fear conditioning) - Insula (interoception, disgust, empathy) - Anterior cingulate (distress, social pain) - Orbitofrontal cortex (reward, reversal learning) - Social perception & cognition - Biological motion, point-light displays - Gaze following, joint attention - Facial recognition, identity & emotion - Theory of mind, mentalizing - Empathy & prosocial behavior - Mirror neuron system, action understanding - Emotional contagion, affective empathy - Perspective taking, cognitive empathy - Altruism, cooperation, punishment - Attachment & social bonding - Infant-caregiver synchrony - Oxytocin, vasopressin, endogenous opioids - Separation distress, social buffering - Pair bonding, romantic love Language & Symbol Processing - Speech production - Phonological encoding (posterior inferior frontal gyrus) - Syllabification & metrical structure - Articulation (motor cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia) - Prosody (pitch, rhythm, stress) - Speech perception - Categorical perception of phonemes - Voice onset time, place & manner of articulation - Phonotactic constraints, perceptual magnet effect - Speech segmentation, word recognition - Lexical processing - Mental lexicon, lemma & lexeme - Morphological parsing (stems, affixes) - Grammatical category, argument structure - Lexical decision, naming, word generation - Sentence processing - Syntax (branching, recursion, movement) - Garden path effects, syntactic ambiguity resolution - Thematic role assignment, case marking - Semantic composition, type-shifting - Discourse & pragmatics - Coherence relations, centering theory - Presupposition, implicature, common ground - Speech acts (Gricean maxims) - Figurative language (metaphor, irony, hyperbole) Reasoning & Decision Making - Deductive reasoning - Syllogisms (modus ponens, modus tollens) - Propositional & predicate logic - Mental models, rule-based reasoning - Inductive reasoning - Category learning (prototype, exemplar, rule-based) - Feature induction, property generalization - Similarity-based, explanation-based generalization - Analogical reasoning (structure mapping, schema induction) - Abductive reasoning - Inference to the best explanation, Occam's razor - Explanation-based learning, causal inference - Bayesian belief networks, probabilistic reasoning - Judgment & decision making - Heuristics (availability, representativeness, anchoring & adjustment) - Prospect theory (loss aversion, reference dependence) - Intertemporal choice, delay discounting - Sunk cost fallacy, escalation of commitment - Framing effects, preference reversals - Moral judgment - Deontological vs. consequentialist principles - Moral foundations theory (care, fairness, loyalty, authority, sanctity) - Trolley problems, utilitarian judgments - Culpability, intention, action vs. omission Metacognition & Executive Functions - Cognitive control - Goal maintenance, rule representation (lateral PFC) - Response inhibition, task switching (ventrolateral PFC) - Conflict monitoring (dorsal anterior cingulate) - Error detection (insula, inferior frontal gyrus) - Working memory & executive attention - Updating, monitoring (dorsolateral PFC) - Dual-task interference, multitasking - Attentional blink, psychological refractory period - Stroop, flanker, Simon, stop-signal, go/no-go, WCST - Metacognition - Meta-memory judgments (feeling of knowing, tip of the tongue) - Confidence ratings, calibration, resolution - Metamemory strategies (rehearsal, chunking, mnemonics) - Metacognitive control (study time allocation, retrieval practice) - Fluid intelligence & executive functions - Relational integration (rostrolateral PFC) - Analogical reasoning, matrix problems - Rule induction, attentional set-shifting - Divergent thinking, creativity - Cognitive development & aging - Frontal lobe maturation, myelination - Piaget's stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, formal) - Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, scaffolding - Prefrontal cortex atrophy, dopamine depletion - Compensatory recruitment, cognitive reserve Perception & Sensory Processing - Vision - Gabor filters, difference of Gaussians (edge detection) - Illusory contours, amodal completion - Ensemble coding, summary statistics - Multiple spatial frequency channels - Retinal ganglion cells (magno, parvo, konio) - Visual cortical areas (V1, V2, V4, MT, IT) - Audition - Auditory nerve fibers (high, medium, low spontaneous rate) - Cochlear nucleus (bushy, stellate, octopus cells) - Inferior colliculus (frequency, amplitude modulation) - Auditory cortex (belt, parabelt areas) - Touch & proprioception - Mechanoreceptors (Meissner, Pacinian, Merkel, Ruffini) - Two-point discrimination, graphesthesia - Dermatomes, somatotopic maps - Posterior parietal areas (5, 7, 39, 40) - Olfaction & gustation - Olfactory receptors (G protein-coupled receptors) - Olfactory bulb (mitral, tufted cells) - Piriform cortex, orbitofrontal cortex - Pheromone sensing (vomeronasal organ) - Gustatory nerve (chorda tympani, greater superficial petrosal) - Solitary tract nucleus, ventral posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus - Multisensory integration - Modeling uncertainty, Bayesian decoding - Temporal binding window, multisensory facilitation/suppression - Superior colliculus, putamen, premotor cortex - McGurk effect, rubber hand illusion Attention & Cognitive Control - Bottom-up attention - Wolfe's Guided Search model - Triesman's Feature Integration Theory - Perceptual load theory - Object files, inhibition of return - Top-down attention - Biased competition theory - Biased sampling, precision optimization - Frontal eye fields, intraparietal sulcus - Neglect syndrome, extinction - Alerting, orienting, executive attention - Posner's attentional networks - Vigilance, sustained attention - Contingent capture, distractor suppression - Attentional set, task switching - Attentional phenomena - Visual crowding, lateral masking - Negative priming, inhibition of return - Perceptual grouping, object-based attention - Attentional boost effect, emotional blink Learning & Memory - Declarative memory - Levels of processing (perceptual, phonological, semantic) - Transfer-appropriate processing - Encoding specificity, context-dependent memory - Part-list cueing, retrieval-induced forgetting - Non-declarative memory - Perceptual representation system - Procedural/motor-skill learning (power law of practice) - Evaluative conditioning, mere exposure effect - Cerebellar long-term depression - Working memory - Time-based resource sharing model - Feature binding (object, location, time) - Neuronal oscillations (theta-gamma coupling) - Prefrontal delay activity, persistent firing - Neural plasticity - Dendritic branching, spinogenesis - Critical periods, ocular dominance columns - Homeostatic plasticity, synaptic scaling - Neuromodulation (ACh, NE, DA, 5-HT) - Memory consolidation & retrieval - Replay, sharp-wave ripples - Multiple memory systems (declarative, procedural, emotional) - Retrieval-induced reconsolidation, memory updating - Schema theory, semanticization Motor Control & Sequence Learning - Voluntary movement - Optimal feedback control theory - Equilibrium-point hypothesis - Synergies, uncontrolled manifold - Fitts' law, speed-accuracy tradeoff - Cerebellum - Microzone architecture (mossy fibers, climbing fibers, Purkinje cells) - Vestibulo-ocular reflex, optokinetic nystagmus - Cerebellar ataxia, dysmetria - Reflexes & pattern generators - Myotatic (stretch) reflex, inverse myotatic reflex - Crossed-extensor reflex - Spinal central pattern generators (locomotion) - Brainstem pattern generators (mastication, saccades) - Motor learning & control - Feedforward vs. feedback control - Model-free (direct policy) vs. model-based learning - After-effect, spontaneous recovery, retention & transfer - Structural learning, contextual interference effect - Sequence learning - Competitive queuing model - Associative chaining, hierarchical organization - Ordinal vs. interval sequence representations - Integrating temporal structure (rhythm, timing) Reward & Motivation - Dopamine system - Dopamine neuron electrophysiology (tonic vs. phasic) - Presynaptic control, autoreceptors - D1-like (D1, D5) vs. D2-like (D2, D3, D4) receptors - Striatal patch/striosome vs. matrix compartments - Reinforcement learning - Markov decision processes, Bellman equation - Monte Carlo vs. temporal difference learning - Advantage learning, actor-critic models - Hierarchical reinforcement learning - Motivation & goal-directed behavior - Incentive motivation theory (Bolles-Bindra-Toates) - Reward prediction, sign-tracking vs. goal-tracking - Action-outcome vs. stimulus-response learning - Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer, conditioned reinforcement - Neuroeconomics & decision making - Prospect theory, temporal discounting - Ambiguity aversion, risk preference - Intertemporal choice, impulsivity - Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task - Trust Game, Ultimatum Game, Prisoner's Dilemma Emotion & Social Cognition - Emotion - Appraisal theory (Lazarus, Scherer) - Constructed emotion theory (Barrett) - Somatic marker hypothesis (Damasio) - Facial feedback hypothesis - Stress response (HPA axis, sympathetic nervous system) - Social perception - Configural face processing, fusiform face area - Biological motion, temporal lobe &STS - Vocal prosody, affective prosody - Facial and vocal emotion recognition - Social cognition & theory of mind - False-belief tasks, intentional stance - Simulation theory vs. theory-theory - Affective forecasting, curse of knowledge - Dunning-Kruger effect, illusory superiority - Fundamental attribution error, correspondence bias - Prosocial behavior & moral psychology - Kin selection, inclusive fitness - Reciprocal altruism, strong reciprocity - Social preferences (inequity aversion, guilt aversion) - Moral foundations (harm, fairness, loyalty, authority, sanctity) - Deontology vs. consequentialism, trolley problems - Social interaction & communication - Motherese, child-directed speech - Gricean maxims, conversational implicature - Audience design, alignment - Verbal & nonverbal rapport (back-channeling, mimicry) Language & Symbol Processing - Speech perception - TRACE model, Cohort model, Neighborhood Activation Model - Motor theory, direct realist theory, general auditory theory - Perceptual learning, talker adaptation - Categorical perception, perceptual magnet effect - Duplex perception, sine-wave speech - Lexical processing - Interactive activation model, WEAVER++ model - Form priming, semantic priming, mediated priming - Frequency, age of acquisition, familiarity - Orthographic depth, grapheme-to-phoneme consistency - Phonological neighborhood density, clustering coefficient - Sentence processing - Garden path model, constraint-based models - Good-enough processing, shallow processing - Syntactic priming, structural persistence - Agreement attraction, negative polarity illusions - Semantic P600, N400, left anterior negativity (LAN) - Discourse & pragmatics - Given-new contract, question under discussion - Accommodation, bridging inference - Segmented discourse representation theory - Centering theory, entity grid model - Politeness theory, face management - Figurative language - Conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson) - Relevance theory, graded salience hypothesis - Career of metaphor model, property attribution model - Sarcasm, irony, hyperbole - Idiom decomposition hypothesis Reasoning & Decision Making - Deductive reasoning - Mental logic theory, mental model theory - Relational complexity, relational integration - Belief bias effect, matching bias - Wason selection task, suppression task - Inductive reasoning - Similarity-coverage model, Bayesian models - Premise probability effect, inclusion fallacy - Relevance theory of induction - Causal reasoning, causal Bayes nets - Abductive reasoning - Hypothetico-deductive method, inference to the best explanation - Explanatory coherence, simplicity, consilience - Diagnostic reasoning, evidence integration - Probabilistic abduction, most probable explanation - Heuristics & biases - Availability, representativeness, anchoring & adjustment - Base rate neglect, conjunction fallacy - Framing effects, preference reversals - Hindsight bias, outcome bias - Overconfidence, calibration, resolution - Dual process theories - System 1 (automatic) vs. System 2 (controlled) - Heuristic vs. systematic processing - Intuitive vs. deliberative judgment - Fast & frugal heuristics, ecological rationality Metacognition & Executive Functions - Cognitive control - Conflict monitoring theory, expected value of control - Hierarchical control, cascade model - Anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex - N2, error-related negativity (ERN), feedback-related negativity (FRN) - Working memory - Multiple component model (Baddeley) - Time-based resource sharing model - State-based models, distributed cohort model - Capacity limits (magical number 4, 7±2) - Neural oscillations, cross-frequency coupling - Metacognition - Meta-level vs. object-level - Judgments of learning, feeling of knowing - Retrospective confidence, decision confidence - Metacognitive sensitivity, bias, efficiency - Anterior prefrontal cortex, precuneus, insula - Executive functions - Miyake's unity/diversity framework (updating, shifting, inhibition) - Goal neglect, goal shielding - Prospective memory, intention superiority effect - Fluid intelligence, Cattell-Horn-Carroll model - Cognitive development - Infant cognition (habituation, violation of expectation) - A-not-B error, object permanence, joint attention - Theory of mind (diverse desires, diverse beliefs, knowledge access) - Executive function (dimensional change card sort, day/night Stroop) - Formal operations (combinatorial reasoning, hypothetical thinking) Perception & Sensory Processing - Vision - Retinal processing (center-surround receptive fields, color opponency) - Primary visual cortex (simple/complex cells, orientation columns) - Two-stream hypothesis (dorsal "where/how" vs. ventral "what") - Predictive coding, hierarchical Bayesian inference - Sparse coding, independent component analysis - Convolutional neural networks, deep learning - Audition - Auditory brainstem response, frequency following response - Tonotopy, cochleotopy, periodotopy - Binaural cues (interaural time & level differences) - Cortical entrainment, asymmetric sampling in time - Mismatch negativity, oddball response - Bayesian scene analysis, predictive coding - Touch & proprioception - Rapidly adapting (RA) & slowly adapting (SA) fibers - Cortical homunculus, Penfield's motor & sensory strips - Active sensing, haptic exploration - Size-weight illusion, material perception - Body schema, peripersonal space - Olfaction & gustation - Combinatorial receptor coding, olfactory primaries - Temporal coding, oscillatory synchronization - Retronasal olfaction, flavor perception - Acquired taste aversion, conditioned taste preference - Pheromone signaling, accessory olfactory system - Multisensory integration - Inverse effectiveness, spatial & temporal coincidence - Cross-modal correspondence, synaesthesia - Multisensory enhancement, depression - Maximum likelihood integration, Bayesian causal inference Attention & Cognitive Control - Bottom-up attention - Koch & Ullman saliency map model - Graph-based visual saliency model - Attentional capture, singleton detection mode - Scene gist, spatial envelope - Top-down attention - Desimone & Duncan biased competition model - Normalization model of attention - Bundesen's theory of visual attention (TVA) - Attentional templates, dimensional weighting - Alerting, orienting, executive control - Attention Network Test (ANT), attentional blink - Inhibition of return, negative priming - Anti-saccade task, oculomotor capture - Task switching, mixing costs & switch costs - Computational models of attention - Spiking neural networks, Normalization Model of Attention - Oscillatory neural networks, communication through coherence - Reinforcement learning, reward-modulated attentional selection - Bayesian attention, uncertainty reduction Learning & Memory - Declarative memory - Remember/know judgments, receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) - Dual process models (recollection vs. familiarity) - Encoding variability, item-specific vs. relational processing - Retrieval-induced forgetting, part-list cueing - Non-declarative memory - Repetition priming, semantic priming - Predictive sequence learning, statistical learning - Generalization & transfer of learning - Nondeclarative components of skills & habits - Working memory - Slot models, resource models, interference models - Domain-specific storage systems (verbal, visuospatial) - Binding & the episodic buffer - Fronto-parietal network, default mode network - Neural network models of memory - Hopfield networks, Boltzmann machines - Temporal context models, scale-invariant memory - Neural Turing machines, differentiable neural computers - Kanerva machines, vector symbolic architectures - Computational models of learning - Bayesian learning, Kalman filters - Reinforcement learning, temporal difference learning - Contrastive Hebbian learning, Boltzmann machines - Generative adversarial networks, variational autoencoders Motor Control & Sequence Learning - Voluntary movement - Posture-movement problem, Bernstein's degrees of freedom problem - Uncontrolled manifold hypothesis, motor synergies - Noise in sensorimotor control, signal-dependent noise - Limb impedance control, equilibrium point hypothesis - Optimal control theory - Open-loop control, feedback control, adaptive control - Minimum intervention principle, minimal effort trajectories - Cost functions (e.g., energy, accuracy, time) - Bayesian decision theory, Kalman filters - Motor learning & adaptation - Aftereffects, spontaneous recovery, savings - Model-based vs. model-free learning - Implicit vs. explicit adaptation - Structural learning, meta-learning - Computational models of motor control - Internal models (forward models, inverse models) - Efference copy, corollary discharge - Feedback error learning, distal teacher model - Active inference, free energy principle - Sequence learning - Parallel distributed processing models - Recurrent neural networks (e.g., SRN, LSTM) - Hidden Markov models, Bayesian nets - Production compilation, chunking Reward & Motivation - Dopamine & basal ganglia circuits - Actor-critic architecture, Go/NoGo pathways - Reward prediction error, temporal difference learning - Incentive salience, sign-tracking vs. goal-tracking - Habits vs. goal-directed behavior - Orbitofrontal cortex & value representation - Devaluation, contingency degradation - Delayed discounting, intertemporal choice - Risk & ambiguity, expected value & expected utility - Range adaptation, relative value coding - Motivation & goal pursuit - Expected value of control, effort discounting - Need for achievement, intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation - Mastery vs. performance orientation, regulatory focus theory - Ego depletion, strength model of self-control - Computational models of reward & decision making - Q-learning, SARSA, actor-critic models - Multi-armed bandits, exploration vs. exploitation - Drift-diffusion models, sequential sampling models - Prospect theory, rank-dependent utility Emotion & Social Cognition - Emotion - Discrete emotion theories (Ekman's basic emotions) - Dimensional theories (valence, arousal, dominance) - Appraisal theories (Scherer's component process model) - Interoception, somatic marker hypothesis - Social perception - Person perception, trait inference, face space models - Thin-slicing, zero-acquaintance judgments - Stereotype content model (warmth & competence) - In-group/out-group bias, minimal group paradigm - Theory of mind & mentalizing - Sally-Anne task, unexpected contents task - Faux pas recognition, strange stories task - Spontaneous theory of mind, implicit mentalizing - Temporo-parietal junction, posterior superior temporal sulcus - Emotion regulation & coping - Cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression - Distraction, situation selection, attentional deployment - Emotion-focused vs. problem-focused coping - Cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness - Social decision making & cooperation - Social value orientation, social preferences - Trust, reciprocity, inequality aversion - Public goods game, common resource dilemmas - Costly signaling theory, reputation management Language & Symbol Processing - Speech perception & word recognition - TRACE model, Shortlist model, Merge model - Phonological competition, inhibition - Lexical access, lemma & lexeme levels - Morphological parsing, inflectional & derivational morphology - Sentence processing & syntactic parsing - Garden path model, constraint-based lexicalist models - Left-corner parsing, top-down vs. bottom-up processing - Syntactic priming, structural alignment - P600, anterior negativities, oscillatory dynamics - Discourse & reference - Situation models, event-indexing model - Referential theory, accessibility hierarchy - Coherence relations, rhetorical structure theory - Anaphor resolution, binding & control - Pragmatics & communicative inference - Speech act theory, indirect speech acts - Scalar implicature, presupposition accommodation - Optimality-theoretic pragmatics, game-theoretic pragmatics - Irony, metaphor, relevance theory - Language production & dialogue - Levelts' blueprint of the speaker - Grammatical encoding, phonological encoding - Lexical selection, picture-word interference - Alignment, entrainment, audience design Reasoning & Decision Making - Deductive reasoning - Natural deduction, mental proofs - Rips' PSYCOP model, Braine & O'Brien's mental logic - Probabilistic theories of reasoning, Bayesian rationality - New paradigm psychology of reasoning - Inductive reasoning - Analogical reasoning, structure mapping theory - Relational priming, semantic relations - Bayesian models of inductive reasoning - Explanation-based learning, theory-based categorization - Causal & counterfactual reasoning - Causal Bayes nets, intervention & observation - Force dynamics model of causation - Counterfactual simulation, possible worlds semantics - Fault attribution, blame assignment - Judgment & decision making - Fast & frugal heuristics, recognition heuristic - Parallel constraint satisfaction models, coherence-based reasoning - Quantum cognition, order effects in inference - Naturalistic decision making, expert intuition - Argumentation & belief change - Toulmin's argument model, Walton's argumentation schemes - Belief revision, AGM postulates - Bayesian argumentation, argument-based machine learning - Motivated reasoning, confirmation bias Metacognition & Executive Functions - Cognitive control & controlled processing - Stroop task, flanker task, Simon task - Proactive vs. reactive control, dual mechanisms of control - Conflict monitoring, predicted response-outcome model - Hierarchical control, frontal-parietal network dynamics - Working memory & executive functions - N-back task, complex span tasks - Gf-Gc theory, VPR model of working memory - Binding, relational integration, manipulation - Abstract rule learning, Raven's progressive matrices - Metacognition & self-regulation - Meta-memory, judgments of learning, feeling of knowing - Tip-of-the-tongue, feeling of forgetting - Error awareness, confidence calibration - Self-regulated learning, study time allocation - Fluid reasoning & intelligence - Relational reasoning, analogical reasoning - Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities - Parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) - Process overlap theory, multiple-demand system - Computational models of cognitive control - ACT-R, Soar, Sigma, SAL - Connectionist models, PDP - Reinforcement learning, hierarchical RL - Bayesian models, active inference This expanded map includes many more specific algorithms, processes, and neural substrates involved in biological cognition, but it is still far from exhaustive. The field of cognitive science is vast and rapidly evolving, with ongoing research at multiple levels of analysis from molecular neuroscience to abstract computational theory. The key challenge is to integrate insights across these levels to arrive at a more unified understanding of how biological intelligence works. Some key themes that emerge: - Perception involves hierarchical feature extraction, probabilistic inference, and cross-modal integration. - Attention mediates competition between stimuli and actions, and is guided by bottom-up salience as well as top-down goals. - Learning occurs at multiple scales, from synaptic plasticity to memory consolidation to concept formation. - Action control requires coordination between feedback and feedforward processes, as well as arbitration between habitual and goal-directed systems. - Emotion interacts with cognition to guide behavior, via appraisal processes, somatic markers, and social signaling. - Language relies on structured representations and integrative processes that span sounds, words, sentences, and discourse. - Reasoning involves both formal logic and heuristic procedures, with a key role for relational processing and metacognition. - Executive functions exert top-down control over thoughts and actions, and continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. - Cognition involves an interplay between bottom-up, stimulus-driven processing and top-down, goal-directed control. - Many cognitive functions can be characterized as statistical inference problems, well-captured by Bayesian models. - Learning occurs via a combination of unsupervised, supervised, and reinforcement-based mechanisms. - Symbolic and sub-symbolic representations coexist and interact in complex ways. - Many cognitive processes are adaptive and context-sensitive, exhibiting nonlinear dynamics and complex systems properties. Some additional areas that could be covered in even more depth include: - Consciousness & self-awareness - Dreaming, mind-wandering, spontaneous thought - Skill acquisition & expertise - Cognitive architectures & control structures - Individual differences (intelligence, personality, psychopathology) - Comparative cognition across species Despite the impressive array of algorithms on display, it's clear that human intelligence still far surpasses machine intelligence in terms of flexibility, generalizability, and common sense understanding. Reverse-engineering the information processing underlying biological cognition remains a formidable challenge. Continued progress will require close collaboration between empirical and theoretical approaches, as well as between the cognitive sciences and allied disciplines like computer science and robotics. #### Map of biological intelligence 2 Sensory Systems - Vision (visual cortex, object recognition, motion detection) - Audition (auditory cortex, speech processing, sound localization) - Somatosensation (somatosensory cortex, touch, proprioception) - Gustation (gustatory cortex, taste perception) - Olfaction (olfactory bulb and cortex, smell perception) - Sensory integration (multisensory processing, cross-modal interactions) Motor Systems - Motor cortex (primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, supplementary motor area) - Cerebellum (coordination, precision, timing of movements) - Basal ganglia (action selection, initiation of movements, motor learning) - Brainstem and spinal cord (reflexes, central pattern generators, postural control) - Neuromuscular junctions and muscles (force generation, fine motor control) Attention and Arousal - Reticular activating system (arousal, sleep/wake cycles) - Thalamus (sensory gating, attentional spotlight) - Frontal eye fields (visual attention, saccades) - Parietal cortex (spatial attention, multisensory integration) - Anterior cingulate cortex (attentional control, error monitoring) Perception - Visual perception (shape, color, depth, motion, object/face recognition) - Auditory perception (pitch, loudness, timbre, sound source localization) - Somatosensory perception (touch, temperature, pain, body position sense) - Olfactory perception (odor detection, discrimination, identification) - Gustatory perception (taste detection - sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami) - Perceptual constancies (size, shape, color, lightness constancy) - Multisensory integration (combining sights, sounds, touch, smells) Learning and Memory - Hippocampus (episodic memory, spatial memory & navigation) - Medial temporal lobe (declarative memory consolidation) - Striatum (procedural/skill learning, habit formation) - Amygdala (emotional memory, fear conditioning) - Cerebellum (motor learning, classical conditioning) - Prefrontal cortex (working memory, rule learning) - Synaptic plasticity (LTP, LTD, spike-timing dependent plasticity) Language - Broca's area (speech production, grammar processing) - Wernicke's area (language comprehension) - Superior temporal gyrus (phonological processing) - Angular gyrus (semantic processing) - Arcuate fasciculus (connection between Broca's & Wernicke's areas) - Basal temporal language area (naming, word retrieval) Reasoning and Decision Making - Prefrontal cortex (executive functions, planning, goal-directed behavior) - Orbitofrontal cortex (value-based decision making) - Anterior cingulate cortex (conflict monitoring, error detection) - Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (logical reasoning, working memory) - Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (emotional/social decision making) - Parietal cortex (numerical cognition, magnitude estimation) - Basal ganglia (action selection, reinforcement learning) Emotion - Amygdala (fear, anger, anxiety, aggression) - Insula (interoception, disgust, empathy, social emotions) - Anterior cingulate cortex (emotional regulation, empathy) - Hypothalamus (drives, autonomic arousal) - Nucleus accumbens (reward, pleasure, motivation) - Prefrontal cortex (emotional control, delayed gratification) Social Cognition - Fusiform gyrus (face perception, face recognition) - Superior temporal sulcus (perception of biological motion, gaze following) - Temporoparietal junction (theory of mind, empathy, perspective taking) - Orbitofrontal cortex (social reward processing) - Anterior cingulate cortex (empathy, emotional contagion) - Mirror neuron system (action understanding, imitation, empathy) Consciousness and Metacognition - Default mode network (self-referential thought, autobiographical memory) - Prefrontal cortex (meta-cognition, self-monitoring, cognitive control) - Posterior cingulate cortex (self-reflection, mind wandering) - Precuneus (self-centered mental imagery, episodic memory retrieval) - Claustrum (proposed conductor of consciousness) - Neural synchrony and oscillations (binding of conscious experiences) This map highlights the incredible complexity of biological intelligence, with many specialized brain regions and networks interacting in intricate ways to give rise to perception, cognition, emotion, and behavior. Of course, much still remains to be discovered about the neural basis of intelligence. But this provides a high-level overview of many of the key elements identified by neuroscience research to date.